A very brief guide to punctuation.

Part 1

The basics: commas, semi-colons, colons and full-stops.

Firstly, then, we have the comma (a symbol which sits on the line and is shaped like a tear drop). The comma is a very ubiquitous piece of punctuation these days and is often littered throughout text without care. The comma is the most paucitive piece of punctuation and is typically defined as lasting around half a second - whereas the full-stop can last for a couple of seconds and a semi-colon is typically between the two. Often, people punctuate with a comma by allocating it some sort of breathing pause. That approach can often work when style is equal to grammar, but, usually, grammar will always prevail in dictating usage. Often, a comma is used to separate similar items in a list (depending on the size of the list), e.g.:

1. You'll need the following things: a bill, a passport or a driver's license.

But, as I've said, it can also indicate a slight pause (usually given for effect), e.g.:

2. He was 17, but it felt as though life had yet to begin.

Let me explain. Sentences are made of clauses, and clauses are made of phrases. There are two types of clauses: subordinate and co-ordinate. Subordinate clauses cannot stand on their own as complete thoughts because they don't contain verbs, whereas co-ordinate clauses are complete thoughts and are often linked by co-ordinating conjunctions (such as and, or and but). The following examples should indicate what I mean:

1. You will see, given time and experience, that I'm right, dear boy.

2. I love you and I would rather not fight.

In number 1, the commas occurring before 'given' and after 'experience' indicate that the thought is parenthetical. Remove that phrase and the sentence reads: 'You will see that I'm right, dear boy.' You could argue that it would still read the same without the commas, but I'm a purist so you'll have to excuse me. If, however, the rest were removed, the sentence would read: '... given time and experience'. "'Given time and experience' what?" you may ask, quite correctly. In number 2, both clauses offer complete thoughts so the conjunction could be replaced by a full stop. However, the two clauses are so close in sense that it makes more sense not to separate them but rather have them linked with a co-ordinating conjunction. Just so you know, only and, or and but are such conjunctions; the rest, such as while or however, for instance, are known as subordinating conjunctions.

Secondly, we have the semi-colon. As I've said, when given as a marker for a pause it's a half-way house between the comma and the full-stop. As such, if one is writing a list with many items one can indulge in the use of semi-colons so as not to make the passage confusing. The following example illustrates my point:

1. There are several types of organism living in the area: various insects, including dragonflies, hornets and beetles; arachnids; rodents, including rats, door mice and field mice....

You can see that in that example I've separated the types of animals so as not to pepper the piece with too many commas. The semi-colon can also be used to separate bullet points. One final and important use of the semi-colon is to link two pieces of relevant information. In this respect, it's almost a substitute for a conjunction. E.g.:

1. You go one way; I'll go the other.

In this sense, the semi-colon is used rather than and - which seems more effective and to-the-point.

Thirdly, then, we have the colon. The colon is usually described as: that little bit of punctuation which is responsible for delivering the goods. Why do I say this? Well, it usually introduces one of three things: a point, a list, or direct speech, as in:

1. One thing was for sure: the winter would take a toll from Shakespeare's Richard the Third.

2. You'll need the following things: ....

3. Apparently, Darren said: "..." ....

Finally, in this section, we have the full-stop. The full-stop is used to mark the end of a sentence (which is usually defined as having a subject and predicate (verb and object/complement/adverbial) and is typically of around 20 words). Whether to end a sentence here or there is of course dictated by personal choice but a full-stop can, and should, always come at the end of a sentence. However, saying this, a sentence may continue indefinitely, depending on its structure and whether you want to annoy your reader or not. A full stop should be included only when the meaning of a verb has ceased (and a comma would thus protract and convolute the meaning of further clauses) or a point is being laboured. It's up to you whether you write short, snappy sentences or long, descriptive, drawn-out prose, but a mixture is obviously recommended.

The full-stop also signifies abbreviation. Some abbreviations, like Mr, do not need full-stops because they end with the last letters of their corresponding words. However, some - like 'department' (dept.) - don't end with their last letters. Other examples include: sev. (several), gen. (general), maj. (major), MajGen. (major general), lt. (lieutenant), U.S. (United States), prof. (professor), rev. or revd (reverend), sen. (senator) etc. (et cetera), and i.e. (id est). This is why when some abbreviations - like etc. - occur at the end of sentences two full-stops are used. If abbreviations occur mid-sentence, they also are sometimes followed by commas. Look at the following examples:

1. I've received an e-mail from the rev.. Or: I've received an e-mail from the revd.

2. Did you receive the message from the Prof. Daniels?

3. I refer you to the comments made by James Hart, John Zimmerman, Paul Blart, and Gary Philips, etc..

Part 2: parenthetical punctuation.

Now, I've done the comma but what I neglected to mention is that there do exist other forms of punctuation which act in a similar way to the humble comma. The following items can be used interchangeably but, like in most cases, there are miniscule differences between each.

First, we have the hyphen (or dash). The hyphen is often used to mark off a piece of information as an aside. It also acts to show information which has an additional meaning which is related to the main point but is somehow not entirely relevant. Therefore, this piece of punctuation is similar to both the comma and parenthesis, as in the following examples:

1. It was 7 - in the p.m. - and already the sordid creatures had risen from their winks.

2. He was 32 stone with hardly any facial hair - a kind of John Candy-esque fellow, if I do say so myself.

In prose, of course, a dash is often incorporated into speech to show an interjection (one sees this sort of thing a lot in plays). A comma can come after a following dash in some examples - regardless of how awkward this appears to look. Most people, however, tend not to do this. That doesn't mean that you don't have to, though.

Second, we have parentheses. Unlike dashes, these should be used only when the information you're imparting is something techincal or which can't be inferred. We English call them brackets, of course, but I'll go with the American standard. When occurring at the end of a sentence, a full stop should be placed outside the final bracket; when occurring as a separate sentence (as an afterthought) a full-stop should be placed inside the brackets, as in the following examples:

1. For a house looter, a crow bar should be sufficient (or any kind of prying tool for that matter).

2. Jeffrey Johnson had committed a grossly horrendous crime. (In fact, it was the fourth time inside a two-year period.)

Firstly, we have the ellipsis which is comprised of three ellipsis dots (...). When occurring at the end of a sentence an ellipsis should be qualified by a fourth and final dot; in all other examples three dots is what you'll need. The ellipsis signifies either omitted words (the ellipsis is employed in this case usually because certain words either can't be identified in the original source or the words aren't relevant) or a kind of pause introduced for effect - i.e. when a scene ends in a particular way, which may, for example, leave two lusty, love-struck teens sitting in a parked car in an abandoned car park.... Of course, it can also be used to signify a person's request to be left alone. The following examples show my point:

1. The orignal papyrus document had the following passage, with words unavailable due to wear and tear: "blah, blah, blah ... blah, blah, blah".

2. He kissed her on the neck and she began to lead him upstairs to bed. As she reached to turn the light switch off, moonlight penetrated through the window slats....

3. I'm not feeling hungry.... Just leave me alone, please.

Part 3: the odds and sods

Firstly, then, we have the apostrophe (a symbol which hangs above the line and looks similar to a comma). The aprostrophe is employed to show or give possession. When singular items - subjects - are given possession over other items - objects - an apostrophe and an s ('s) is employed, as in 'John's bicycle'. When plural items are employed which end in 's', an apostrophe, but no 's', should be employed. As in 'The girls' toybox'. In all other instances of the plural - i.e. not ending in 's' - the same guidance as singular possessiveness should be followed, as in 'the children's park'.

Before I go on, I shall briefly include three more uses of the apostrophe. Firstly, the apostrophe is contractile, which means that it signifies omitted letters in a word. E.g. the word 'Tracy's' can mean Tracy is or has - not just Tracy's so and so. Secondly, by omitting letters, the new word contains two words in one. E.g. 'let's' and the like - a contraction of 'let' and 'us'. Thirdly, plurals of abbreviated phrases and acronyms do not have to end with an apostrophe - a lower case 's' is sufficient. As in DVDs, CDs, VCRs, SSSIs or ABCs - the latter two being 'Sites of Special Scientific Interest' and 'American broadcasting companies' respectively (the latter of which may, or may not, be a ficticious acronym!) Quotation marks (called 'speech marks' in America) should be used only when either quoting a person or quoting direct speech said by a person. In novels, speech is shown with a single mark - as in John retorted: '...'. When a character quotes another, quotation marks are used (as in ''...''). In newswriting, however, both quotes and reported speech are always shown with quotation marks. The following examples illustrate my points:

1) Mark: 'I think you're over-reacting slightly, John.'

John: '"Over-reacting?" What do you mean "over-reacting?"'

2) The following quote was issued by the mayor: "...".

3) He dubbed the decision to go ahead with the plan "despicable".

Secondly, we have the exclamation mark. The exclamation mark should only be used in instances of surprise or a belting/loud demand, or the like, as in: 'really!' or 'Peters, get in my office!' More than one exclamation mark is unnecessary and often highlights juvenile stupidity. An exclamation mark also acts as a full stop, in the sense that if it's used at the end of a sentence or some other phrase a full stop is un-needed. Also, when a surprised response in the form of a question is used it's recommended that exclamation marks and question marks aren't used together - a question mark alone will suffice.

Thirdly, and finally, we have the question mark. The question mark is only ever employed at the end of... well... a question. Go figure! The question can be interrogative, rhetoric or of any form, but whenever anything is requested of somebody a question mark should be employed. In today's popular culture, question marks are often used as a medial form of surprise - slightly less exclamative than their cousin the exclamation mark. Always ask yourself whether you're asking something of someone, or reinforcing something, as in: 'Yes, you do owe me. Really.'